The Struggles and the Victories of Modern France Essay Example for Free

The Struggles and the Victories of Modern France EssayIntroductionModern France has been a product of the historical struggles among the then prevailing Catholic church and monarchy and the rising influence of intellectuals and revolutionaries. Pierre Birnbaums The Idea of France traces the roots of the modern French state and how the current status quo had been influenced by the ideological, political and social struggles that have shaken the province. Essentially, Birnbaum argued that France as we hold up it today was a product of one of the most important periods in the history of France- the Enlightenment and the French Revolution of 1789. Hence, much of what majority rule in France today can be attributed to that period and the succeeding years of struggle to reach its current political stability.The Idea of FranceFrance according to Birnbaum has seen its soul as residing in a privileged relationship with reason (Birnbaum, xiii). This hallmarks the principles of enligh tenment where reason was the primary tool in governing human activity particularly in the affairs of the state, the individuals and the society. Hence, it was a call to end the prevailing rule of the church and the monarchy that was the remnants of the Middle Ages which is seen by the revolutionists as irrational and superstitious.Therefore, from the side of the revolution activists, the emergence of the place residing in the people emerged through the National Assembly or the Third Estate which received criticisms and oppositions from the traditionalists composed of the monarchy and the church service. From the oppositions and the struggle for supremacy in the governing, Birnbaum argued that these antagonistic forces had served as the birthmark of the contemporary French democracy particularly its emphasis on plurality.While Modern France was built in over 200 years by and by the Enlightenment period, this era according to Birnbaum marked the time when the future of modern Fra nce was first hallmarked. In doing so, Birnbaum traced the origins and the development of the political antagonists and protagonists in order to support and bear the current status quo in an era when monarchy and the belief in the divine power was the norm. The division of France also stemmed from philosophers- those defending the reign of the Catholic Church and the monarchy and those who had been advocating a reform in the current system as advocated by the likes of Tocqueville.Hence, Birnbaum described the Third democracy as fraught with divisiveness reaching its peak in the Bloody Week of June 1871 and the conservatives gaining the upper hand. However, this victory was temporary and the ensuing Liberation and the Fourth Republic was established. At this time, France has already shifted to a parliamentary form of brass existing in a coalition.At this time, the changes that were advocated during the French Revolution has been on process and the divisiveness still existed. It wa s only in the Fifth Republic that the political factions waned and the Republic and the Catholic Church evolved- they no longer exhibited the hatred that once fuelled their ideologies but rather have reformed their principles to change the anti-clericism. In doing so, the French government was satisfactory to provide for a pluralistic government as well as a cultural pluralism in the society of France.Analysis The primary strength of Birnbaums adjudge is its ability to depict the contradictory forces in French history as both protagonists of democracy it objectively portrayed the Catholic Church and the monarchy was essential elements in the reformation of a modern France. In doing so, Birnbaum avoids the overtly one-sided depiction of French history as nothing more than a struggle between proponents and opponents of democracy. Each had been ancillary to the other. Needless to say, the French Revolution occurred due to these two forces.Second, Birnbaum treated the 200 years and mo re as a history not only of politics but also of philosophies and of the people. For one, Birnbaum showed the historical context of the Modern France through a c atomic number 18ful and thorough analysis of the cultural struggles in the country at the time.Moreover, it included an analysis of how France was able to overcome the multiculturalism at the time in order to give way to a more tolerant and a brand of French culturalism that is unique. Consequently, upon reading the book, one would appreciate the uniqueness of the French society and its struggles particularly in ushering the Enlightenment period. Hence, Birnbaum also showed readers and scholars from all over the human being that the role France has played in modern democracies and current governmental structures are important.Third, while most history books would have delved into too much detail hence, stress more on facts than on the importance of those facts, Birnbaum was able to capture the readers attention by focusin g on the latter the importance of events can only be appreciated if it can be assortd to what is relevant at the time and in modern times.Consequently, the only weakness of the book has been its inability to thoroughly relate the world events at the time and how it influenced the Frenchs history as well as how France had influenced other societies. While this is not central to the books theme, it would have given the readers the vagary how subversive and how important the events in French history had been at a time when most governments are governed by the Church.Conclusion Guided by reason and a vision that looks at the society and the people as the primary guiding force for the changes in the society, The Idea of France rested on the argument that historical forces are all protagonists in shaping what French society and government is today. The actors primarily the Republicans and the Catholic Church and the monarchy including the opposing intellectuals and the people versus th e nobility- all of these had been instrumental in creating the France that we know today.Modern democracies such as that of France springs from a multitude of events- in the case of The Idea of France it had been the increasing dismay of the people on the status quo governed by the Church and the monarchy.Essentially, The Idea of France by Birnbaum aptly captured the struggles and the victories of France in paving the way for a more democratic form of government particularly in establishing a government by the people and for the people. Concurrently, the struggle of France had endured years before it finally established the Modern France that we know today. Essentially, it is during the period of the Enlightenment and the succeeding years after it that the idea of modern France had been crafted and cemented.Work CitedBirnbaum, Pierre. The Idea of France. Hill and Wang. 352 pages. 2001.

Examination Paper Essay Example for Free

Examination Paper Essay1. Discuss potential cross-ethnic, cross-cultural, and cross-class factors that may affect interview validity. How would you come up to such(prenominal) an interview?Validity, as applied to cross-ethnic, cross-cultural, and cross-class interview, is a purpose of how head the interview measures what it purports to measure in a particular context. More specifically, it is a judgment based on evidence about the appropriateness of inferences drawn from the interview.Interviews ar a very powerful tool. Hence it should be handled correctly to allow dear exploration of the subject at hand, including review questions (which take practice and skill to develop). I should do the following1. I should stick with the program and address hardly now the intended topic, but sometimes, however, an interview subject go away bring up a relevant idea that the researcher had not considered or had discounted. So I should have the cleverness to pursue this line of reaso ning with the subject while maintaining academic rigor is an important skill to have.2. I will look for patterns of responses that repeat themselves over many different respondents. I should use the mirror questions use an earlier response as a way to generate a reexamination question. Lets say my interviewee commented, I like my argument a lot nigh of the time, but sometimes its really a struggle.So my mirror question back to the respondent would be, You said that you like your job most of the time, but sometimes its really a struggle. What it is that sometimes happens that makes your job a struggle for you?This technique accomplishes two very important goals It lets the subject know that you are actually paying attention, which will perhaps encourage save interaction with you, and it allows you to delve deeper into the subjects feelings. Most people arent grammarians, but they do tend to use words carefully.3. Also I should be alert for a difference in the articulateness of th e subject. If one participant answers a question much more smoothly than other participants, it could mean that that soul has been subscribeed the question several times before, or it could mean that the person has given a lot of thought to the topic. It might help to ask a follow-up question to that effect.Its recommended that you ask the Youve given this a lot of thought question, because it gives the participant credit and makes him or her feel empowered. These hypothetical questions give the opportunity to ask interviewees about how they would react to or feel about an event that could happen. It could be as simple as the following After you discover that a role player has taken advantage of on-site child care, you ask other employees about realizable consequences for them if that service were to no longer be provided free of charge or at all.4. Finally, I will use summary questions to signal a transition to a new topic area or the end of the interview. They are usually very simple, such as Do you feel theres anything else we should discuss about (the topic) before we move on? This lets interviewees know that you cognize youre not perfect, that they might know something you dont, and that you welcome their bringing it to your attention.2. Given what you read in Chapter 8 in our textbook, design a planning program for law enforcement officers teaching interrogation techniques that reduce the errors associated with interviewing. Interrogations are considered to be one of the most important phases of the investigation process.Once a confession rehearsal is obtained during an interrogation it is not considerably retracted. In most cases bend research workers are not trained to believe that false confessions occur and dirty dog be easily obtained from distrusts but can be prevented given a training program on teaching interrogation techniques that reduce the errors associated with interviewing.Hence, I will design a novel training program with which a highly intense psychological interrogation techniques on the elicitation of true and false confession. First, the interview should begin with confronting the suspects guilt by telling the suspect that there is no doubt that he or she is involved in the crime. Next, the enforcement officers should developed themes that would justify the criminal act- a way to rationalize for the crime. An example is the inquisitor should suggest to the suspect that the victim was responsible for the crime because of his or her behavior. The third step teaches the interrogator to try and interrupt all efforts at denial during the interview.The fourth step of the program advices that the officer should overcome the suspects factual, moral, and emotional objections to the charges. At the next step, the interrogator should ensure that the passive suspect does not withdraw. Once the officer detects any indication that the suspect is starting to withdraw, they should immediately act upon it. During th is stage on the interview, the investigator should show sympathy and understanding toward the suspect and advises him/her to tell the truth.Next, it is to recommend that the interrogator offer the suspect an alternative explanation for the criminal act. Research question could be Did you blow the money on booze, drugs, and women and party with it, or did you need it to help out your family? In step 8 of the program, I suggest that the officer should undertake to get the suspect to describe the details of the crime. If the oral confession from step 8 is successfully obtained during the interrogation, then the step 9 serves to convert the statement just given into a full confession statement.3. Discuss the 3-level hierarchical impersonate of the mod Binet and compare it to Spearmans concept of general mental ability.The 3-level hierarchical model of the modern Binet represents a basic theoretical and empirical model of cognitive abilities pursued the dual goal of retaining as many item types as possible from the earlier editions while incorporating current ability constructs. The modern Binet determined the four areas of cognitive ability vocal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term memory. The modern Binet also provide a global index of functioning that would represent what is commonly known as g or general reasoning ability. These eliminate areas are the united in a 3-level hierarchical model of intelligence information which provided their theoretical model of merciful intelligence.While Binet assumes that a unitary or distributive factor (i.e., judgment or adaptation) was the common denominator of human intelligence, Spearman viewed it as a hypothesis yet to be tested. He found that the arrangement of general human abilities could be expressed by a definite mathematical equation (i.e., tetrad) and comparing it to Binet, he has the famous two-factor theory of intelligence.The general factor and denoted by the gar ner g. The second is known as the specific factor and is denoted by the letter s. Spearmans main conclusion relating to the presence of g have be to be sound and its presence in the theoretical model hypothesized for the modern Binet can be tentatively accepted.Further, Spearman recognized that problem solving speed and intelligence were correlated. He did, however, disagree with Binet and Simons theoretical position that their tests worked because they measured individually patterned intelligences. For Spearman, a general factor along with specific factors of different magnitudes explained intelligent behavior.4. spot one of the WAIS-III subtests and describe possible non-intellective factors that may influence an individuals performance.The WAIS-III consists of 14 subtests. The WAIS elicits three intelligence quotient scores, based on an average of 100, as well as subtest and index scores. WAIS subtests measure specific verbal abilities and specific performance abilities. The WA IS elicits an overall intelligence quotient, called the full-scale IQ, as well as a verbal IQ and a performance IQ. The three IQ scores are standardized in such a way that the scores have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Wechsler pioneered the use of deviation IQ scores, allowing test takers to be compared to others of different as well as the uniform age.WAIS scores are sometimes converted into percentile ranks. The verbal and performance IQ scores are based on scores on the 14 subtests. The 14 subtest scores have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of three. The WAIS also elicits four indices, each based on a different set of subtests verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed.Tasks on the WAIS include questions of general knowledge, traditional arithmetic problems, a test of vocabulary, completion of pictures with abstracted elements, arrangements of blocks and pictures, and assembly of objects. picture completion, picture arrangement, block design, object assembly, digit symbol, matrix reasoning, and symbol search. Matrix reasoning and symbol search are new subtests and were added to the most recent edition of the WAIS (WAIS-III).I would like to discuss the picture completion subtest. Here, the test taker is required to complete pictures with missing elements. The picture arrangement subtest entails arranging pictures in order to tell a story. The block design subtest requires test takers to use blocks to make specific designs. The object assembly subtest requires people to assemble pieces in such a way that a whole object is built. In the digit symbol subtest, digits and symbols are presented as pairs and test takers then must pair supererogatory digits and symbols.6. Discuss the implications of testing infants. What are the advantages and disadvantages of such procedures?In infancy (the period from birth through 18 months), testing consists primarily of measuring of sensorimotor development. Thi s includes, for example, the measurement of nonverbal, motor responses such as turning over, lifting the head, sitting up, following a moving object with the eyes, imitating gestures, and reaching for a group of objects.Hence, the examiner who attempts to assess the skilful and related abilities of infants must be skillful in establishing and maintaining rapport with examinees who do not yet know the heart of words like cooperation and patience. Typically, measures of infant intelligence rely to a great degree on information obtained from a structured interview with the examinees parents, guardians, or other caretakers.Infant testing, have with other information (such as birth history, emotional and social history, health history, data on the quality of the physical and emotional environment, and measures of adaptive behavior) have proved useful to health professionals when suspicions about developmental disability and related deficits have been raised. The tests have also proved useful in helping to define the abilities, as well as the extent of disability, in older, psychotic children.Furthermore, the tests have been in use for a number of years by many adoption agencies that will disclose and interpret such information to prospective adoptive parents. Infant tests also have wide application in the area of research and can play a part in selecting infants for specialized early educational experiences or in measuring the outcome of educational, therapeutic, or prenatal care interventions.What is the meaning of a score on an infant intelligence test? Whereas some of the developers of infant tests (such as Cattell, 1940 Gesell et al., 1940) claimed that such tests can predict future intellectual ability because they measure the developmental precursors to such ability, others have insisted that performance on such tests at best reflects the infants physical and neuropsychological intactness.The research belles-lettres supports a middle ground between these extreme positions. In general, the tests have not been found to predict performance on child or braggart(a) intelligence teststests that tap vastly different types of abilities and thought processes. The predictive ability of infant intelligence tests does tend to increase with the extremes of the infants performance. The test translator can say with authority more about the future performance of an infant whose performance was either profoundly below age expectancy or significantly precocious.ReferencesPsychological Testing Principles, Applications and Issues (7th ed.) by Robert M.Kaplan and Dennis P. Saccuzzo. Published by Thomson Wadsworth.

The Precast Concrete Piles Engineering Essay

The formed Concrete plenitudes Engineering Essay2.1 introduction2.1.1 Introduction of foldPiles ar the very common elements in a foundation. Pile foundation have the function that transfer hemorrhoid from superstructure through and through through water or through the weak compressible strata, onto carry, less compressible soils or onto stiffer. This type of foundation select to carry uplift stretch along when it is utilize to support tall structures. not only that, it is also to overturning the forces from winds or waves. Thus, mickles used in marine structures argon also the subjected to lateral loads from the waves and impact of berthing ships. The combinations of horizontal and vertical loads are to carry where the mobs are used to support, bridge piers and a thatments, retaining walls and machinery foundations.In the late of nineteenth years, strong suitened cover was developed as a geomorphologic medium. This is the replacement of timber for high-capacity pile of works into soil on land. This grass be formed in structural forms and also suitable for ground conditions and the compel loading. The durability of pile was satisfactory for immersion conditions and most of the soil. Replacement of the driven of precast cover of cast in-situ piles had due to most of the schooling of highly efficient machines. This is for activitying pile boreholes of rock conditions, great depth in wide range of soil and the ample diameter of pile than to former(a) deficiency in performance of the precast cover element.Steel is used to incr residuum when extension for pile due to ability to withstand hard ride, blow overling, to its ease of fabrication. The corrosion problem in marine structures have had solved by the introduction of cathode protection and durable coatings.(Michael Tomlinson, 2008)2.1.2 Type of pile2.1.2.3 displacement pilesPrecast cover pilePrecast concrete piles have their principal use in marine and river structures, i.e. in situation s where the use of driven and cast-in-place piles is impossible or uneconomical. For land structures un phrase precast concrete piles are frequently more costly than driven and casting- place types for two main reasons1. Reinforcement must be leadd in the precast concrete pile to withstand the flex and tensile accentuatees which occur during handling and movement. Once the pile is in the ground, and if mainly compressive loads are carried, the majority of this leaf blade is redundant.2. The precast concrete pile is not readily cut down or extended to suit variations in the take of the bearing stratum to which the piles are driven.However, there are m either situations for land structures where the precast concrete pile lowlife be more economical. Where large numbers of piles are to be installed in easy private road conditions the savings in cost due to the rapidity of driving achieved may outperform the cost of the heavier reinforcing steel necessary. Reinforcement may b e needed in any shift to resist bending stresses due to lateral loads or tensile stresses from uplift loads. Where high-capacity piles are to be driven to a hard stratum, savings in the overall quantity of concrete compared with cast-in-place piles rat be achieved since higher working stresses can be used. Where piles are to be driven in sulphate-bearing ground or into aggressive industrial fellate materials,the provision of sound high-quality hard concrete is ensured. The problem of varying the length of the pile can be overcome by adopting a jointed type.From the to a higher place remarks it can be seen that there is still quite a wide range of employment for the precast concrete pile, particularly for projects where the costs of establishing a precasting step can be spread over a large number of piles. The piles can be designed and manufactured in ordinary reenforce concrete, or in the form of pre-tensioned or post-tensionedprestressed concrete members. The ordinary reinf orced concrete pile is likely to be preferred for a project requiring a fairly small number of piles, where the cost of establishing a production line for prestressing work on site is not justifiable and where the site is too removed from an established factory to allow the economical transportation of prestressed units from the factory to the site.Precast concrete piles in ordinary reinforced concrete are unremarkably square or hexagonal and of solid cross-section for units of short or moderate length, unless for saving exercising weight long piles are ordinarily manufactured with a hollow interior in hexagonal, octagonal, or circular sections. The interiors of the piles can be filled with concrete after driving. This is necessary to overturn bursting where piles are exposed to severe frost action. Alternatively, drainage holes can be provided to prevent water from accumulating in the hollow interior. To avoid excessive flexibility while handling and driving the usual maximum lengths of square sectionpiles, and the range of working loads applicable to each size are shown in table 2.1 . Where piles are designed to carry the applied loads mainly in end-bearing, for example, piles driven through soft clays into medium-dense or dense sands, economies in concrete and reductions in weight for handling can be achieved by providing the piles with an enlarged toe. This is practised widely in the Netherlands where the standard enlargements are 1.5 to 2.5 times the get laid breadth with a length equal to or greater than the width of the enlargement.Table 2.1 Working loads and maximum lengths for ordinary precastconcrete piles of square sectionJointed precast concrete pilesThe disadvantages of having to adjust the lengths of precast concrete piles either by pillowcase by the surplus or casting on additional lengths to accommodate variations in the depth to a hard bearing stratum result be evident. These drawbacks can be overcome by employing jointed piles in w hich the adjustments in length can be made by adding or pickings away short lengths of pile which are jointed to each other by devices capable of developing the same bending and tensile resistance as the main body of the pile. BS EN 12794 defines pile joints in four classes, Class A to Class D, depending on whether the pile is used in compression, tension, or bending and the impact load test to be applied to verify the static design calculations. If the pile joint satisfies the impact and bending tests hence the net capacity of the joint is identical to the calculated static bearing capacity. Annex ZA to this standard deals with the CE marking of foundation pile units and the presumption of fitness for the mean use.The Hercules pile, originally developed in Sweden, is available in the UK from Stent Foundations Ltd in two square sizes with standard lengths of 6.1, 9.2, and 12.2 m, and properties as shown in Table 2.6. C45/55 concrete is usually used. The precast concrete units ar e locked together by a steel bayonet-type joint to obtain the requisite bending and tensile resistance and a rock dress incorporating an Oslo point seating pile into hard rock. A length is chosen for the initial driving which is judged to be suitable for the shallowest predicted penetration in a given area. Additional lengths are locked on if deeper penetrations are necessary, or if very deep penetrations requiring multiples of the standard lengths are necessary.Other types of jointed precast concrete piles include the Centrum pile manufactured and installed by Aarslef Piling in the UK using C40/50 concrete and rigid welded reinforcement cages in varying lengths from 4 to 18 m in square sections from 200 to 600 mm. Lengths greater than 4 m for the 200 and 250 mm sections can be jointed using a single locking pin driven horizontally into locking rings in the joint box (four locking pins for the larger sections), which are designed to provide a degree of pre-tensioning to the typica l locking pin joint. Depending on the length, section, and joint used and the ground conditions, working loadsup to 1200 kN in compression and one hundred eighty kN in tension are possible.RB precast square concrete piles made and installed by Roger Bullivant Ltd are available in four sizes with working load capabilities (depending on ground conditions) from 200 kN for the nominal one hundred fifty mm square section to 1200 kN for the 355 mm square pile, in lengths of 1.5, 3, and 4 m. The standard joint for the limited tensile and bending capability is a simple spigot and socket type bonded with epoxy resin with each pile length bedded on a sand/cement mortar. Special joints and pile reinforcement can be provided as needed to resist bending moments and tension forces.Precast concrete piles which consist of units joined together by simple steel end plates with welded butt joints are not always suitable for hard driving conditions, or for driving on to a sloping hard rock surface. We lds made in exposed site conditions with the units held in the leaders of a piling frame may not always be sound. If the welds break due to tension waves set up during driving or to bending caused by any deviation from alignment, the pile may break up into separate units with a complete loss of bearing capacity. This type of damage can occur with key out or locked joints when the piles are driven heavily, for example, to break through thin layers of dense gravel. The design of the joint is, in fact, a critical factor in the successful employment of these piles, and tests to check bending, tension, and compression capabilities should be carried out for particular applications. However, even joints made from steel castings require accurate contact surfaces to ensure that stress concentrations are not transferred to the concrete.The Presscore pile developed and installed by Abbey Pynford plc is a jointed precast concrete pile consisting of short units which are jacked into the soil. T he concrete in the pile units and precast pile cap is 60 N/mm2 and a reinforcing bar can be hardened through the centre of the units of Presscore pile. On reaching the required bearing depth the annulus around the pile is grouted through ports in the units. The use of jacked-in piles for on a lower floorpinning work is described in Chapter 9.A high strength cylindrical precast pile, 155 mm diameter and 1m long, was developed in Canada for underpinning a 90-year-old building in Regina. The segments were cast using steel fibre reinforced concrete with a 28-day compressive strength of 90 N/mm2 and steel fibre content of 40 kg/m3. Each segment was reinforced with four steel wires (9 mm) welded to a steel wire circumferential coil. Recesses were provided at each end of the segment and stainless steel rods connected each segment to form the joint. hydraulic jacks with a capacity of 680 kN reacted against a new pile cap and as each segment was jacked down the next segment was screwed and tensioned onto the connecting rod. The required600 kN pile capacity was achieved at depths ranging from 11 to 13 m.Table 2.2Dimensions and properties of square section Hercules piles asmanufacturedDriven and cast-in-place displacement pilesIn the Cementation Foundations Skanska rendition of the withdrawal pipework pile, the heavy wall section tube has its lower end closed by an expendable steel plate or shoe and is driven from the top by a five-tone hydraulic hammer. On reaching the required to level, as pre fit(p) by calculation or as determined by measurements of driving resistance, the hammer is lifted attain and a reinforcing cage is lowered down the full length of the tube. A highly workable self-compacting concrete is then placed in the tube through a hopper, followed by raising the tube by a hoist rope operated from the pile frame. The tube may be filled completely with concrete before it is lifted or it may be lifted in stages depending on the risks of the concrete crow d in the tube. The length of the pile is limited by the ability of the rig to pull out the drive tube. This restricts the length to about 20 to 30 m. Pile diameters range from 285 to 525 mm with working loads up to 1500 kN.In a further variation of the Franki technique, the gravel plug (or dry out concrete plug) can be hammered out at several intermediate stages of driving to form a shell of compact material around the pile shaft. This technique is used in very soft clays which are liable to squeeze inwards when withdrawing the tube. Composite Franki piles are formed by inserting a precast concrete pile or steel tube into the driving tube and anchoring it to the base concrete plug by light hammer blows. The drive tube is then withdrawn.A full-length reinforcing cage is always advisable in the driven and cast-in-place pile. It acts as a useful tell-tale against possible breaks in the integrity of the pile shaft caused by arching and lifting of the concrete as the tube is withdrawn. BS EN 12699 requires minimum reinforcement of 0.5% of the pile cross-section or four 12 mm diameter disallow over the top 4 m of all much(prenominal) piles with minimum cover of 50 mm where the casing is withdrawn, 75 mm where reinforcement is installed after concreting (or where subject to ground contaminants),and 40 mm where there is changeless lining.The problem of inward squeezing of soft clays and peats or of bulbous of the shafts of piles from the pressure of fluid concrete in these soils is common to cast-in-place piles both of the driven and bored types. A method of overcoming this problem is to use a permanent light gauge steel lining tube to the pile shaft. However, great care is needed in withdrawing the drive tube to prevent the permanent liner being lifted with the tube. Even a small amount of lifting can cause transverse cracks in the pile shaft of sufficient width to result in excessive settlement of the pile head under the working load. The problem is particularl y difficult in long piles when the limber lining tube tends to snake and jam in the drive tube. Also where piles are driven in large groups, ground heave can lift the lining tubes off their seating on the unlined portion of the shaft. Snaking and jamming of the permanent liner can be avoided by using spacers such as rings of sponge rubber.In most cases the annulus left outside the permanent liner after pulling the drive tube will not close up. Hence, there will be no frictional resistance available on the lined portion. This can be advantageous because take out down forces in the zone of highly compressible soils and fill materials will be greatly reduced. However, the ability of the pile shaft to carry the working load as a column without lateral support below the pile cap should be checked.Allowable stresses on the shafts of these piles are influenced by the need to use easily workable self-compacting mixes with a slump in the range of 130 to 180 mm and to make allowances for po ssible imperfections in the concrete placed in unseen conditions. BS EN 12699 for driven displacement piles requires the rules on the concreting of bored piles using self-compacting concrete as recommended in BS EN 1536 to apply to all cast-in-place displacement piles unless otherwise specified. BS 8004 limits the working stress to 25% of the 28-day cube strengths, but BS EN 12699 specifies concrete strength classes of C20/25 to C30/37 which are 25% stronger than the cube strengths usually adopted in the UK under BS 8004, that is, a range of 20-30 N/mm2. EC2-1-1 clause 3 refers to characteristic cylinder strengths for the determination of design compressive strengths, and if the 25% limit is applied the allowable stresses range from 5 to 7.5 N/mm2 (i.e. similar to the BS 8004 limits, but for the stronger mixes). For these values, allowable loads for piles of various shaft diameters are as shown in the following tableThe higher ranges in the above table should be adopted with cautio n, particularly in difficult ground conditions.Maximum working loads are as shown in the following tableThe spacing of bars in the reinforcing cage should give ample space for the flow ofconcrete through them. Bars of 5 mm diameter in the form of a spiral or flat steel hoops used for lateral reinforcement should not be spaced at centres closer than 100 mm (80 mm when using 20 mm aggregate).Replacement pilesBored and cast-in-place pilesIn persistent ground an unlined hole can be drilled by hand or mechanical auger. If reinforcement is required, a light cage is then placed in the hole, followed by the concrete. In swooning or water-bearing soils and in broken rocks casing is needed to support the sides of the borehole, this casing being withdrawn during or after placing the concrete. In stiff to hard clays and in weak rocks an enlarged base can be formed to increase the end-bearing resistance of the piles. The enlargement is formed by a rotating expanding tool. Hand excavation is s traightway uneconomic because of stringent statutory health and safety regulations, even in piles with a large shaft diameter. A sufficient cover of stable fine-grained soil must be left over the top of the enlargement in order to avoid a run of loose or weak soil into the unlined cavity.Bored piles drilled by hand auger are limited in diameter to about 355 mm and in depth to about 5 m. They can be used for light buildings such as dwelling houses, but even for these light structures hand methods are used only in situations where mechanical augers.The versatile, light cable percussion tripod rigs can bore piles up to 600 mm diameter 10 m deep with working loads up to 1200 kN in suitable ground conditions. Temporary casing can be driven to cut off unstable ground and reinforcement inserted prior to concreting.Bored piles drilled by mechanical spiral-plate or bucket augers or by grabbing rigs can drill piles with a shaft diameter up to 7.3 m. Standard plate auger boring tools for use w ith kelly bar rigs range from 600 to 3650 mm. Rigs with telescopic kelly bars can reach 70 m depth and 102 m exceptionally. Under-reaming tools can form enlarged bases in stable soils up to 7.3 m in diameter. Rotary cut equipment consisting of drill heads with multiple rock roller bits have been manufactured for drilling shafts up to 8 m in diameter.In a stable dry bore, concreting is carried out from a hopper over the pile with a short length of pipe to direct flow into the centre of the reinforcement, ensuring that segregation does not occur. When concreting boreholes under flooded conditions or under stabilizing fluid a full length tremie pipe (6 times the maximum diameter of the aggregate or 150 mm diameter whichever is the greater) is essential. For reasons of economy and the need to develop shaft friction, it is the normal practice to withdraw the casing during or after placing the concrete. As in the case of driven and cast-in-place piles this procedure requires care and con scientious workmanship by the operatives in order to prevent the concrete being lifted by the casing, and resulting in voids in the shaft or inclusions ofcollapsed soil.Reinforcement is not always needed in bored and cast-in-place piles unless uplift loads are to be carried (uplift may occur due to the swelling and shrinkage of clays). Reinforcement may also be needed in the upper part of the shaft to withstand bending moments caused by any eccentricity in the application of the load, or by bending moments transmitted from the ground beams. However, it is often a wise precaution to use a full-length reinforcing cage in piles where temporary support by casing is required over the whole pile depth. The cage acts as a warning against the concrete lifting as the casing is extracted. The need to allow ample space between the bars for the flow of concrete is again emphasized.2.2 Procedure of driving precast pile and cast in-situ pile.2.2.1 Driving precast concrete pilesA helmet for precas t concrete piles are carefully have-to doe with on thepile, and the hammer position should be checked to ensure that it delivers a concentric blow. The hammer should preferably weigh not less than the pile. BS 8004 requires that the weight or power of the hammer should be sufficient to ensure a final penetration of about 5 mm per blow unless rock has been reached. persecute to the pile can be avoided by using the heaviest possible hammer and limiting the stroke. BS 8004 states that the stroke of a single-acting or drop hammer should be limited to 1.2 m and preferably to not more than 1 m. TheSwedish piling code requires a drop hammer to weigh at to the lowest degree 3 tonne, except that 2-tonne hammers can be used for piles with a maximum length of 10 m and a maximum load of 450 kN, but a 4-tonne hammer should be used for long piles in compact materials. This code recommends that the drop of the hammer should be limited to 300 to cd mm in soft or loose soils to avoid damage by t ensile stresses. The drop should be limited to 300 mm when driving through compact granular soils.The driving of the piles should be carefully watched, and binding by toggle bolts due to the pile rotating or moving off line should be eased. The drop of the hammer should be reduced if cracking occurs, and if necessary the hammer should be changed for a heavier one. After the completion of driving the pile heads should be prepared for bonding into the pile caps. Hollow piles with a solid end may burst under the impact of the hammer if they beat full of water, and holes should therefore be provided to drain off accumulated water. Where a soil plug is formed at the toe of an open-ended pile, water collecting or arching of the soil within the pile may also result in bursting during driving.The installation of withdrawable-tube types ofdriven and cast-in-place piles

Leadership Styles of Snowball and Napoleon in Orwells Animal Farm

leaders Styles of Snowball and snooze in Orwells Animal FarmGeorge Orwells classic tale of how the animals of Manor Farm start a rebellion against the humans is a satirical bring outlook on power play, politics and conduct. The two protagonists in the book are the craps Snowball and Napoleon. This essay begins with attempts to sphere the distinctive racecourseers mien of the two characters, how they were or were non able-bodied to hold their organization, the produce, to pressher and move it towards the railss of succeeder. It then critically analyzes the impact of these styles on organisational behavior and change. This is done by essence of examples of assorted famous draws and what their leadership did for the company. The essay details the requirement of a change leader and what he needs to do in general terms to ensure the change. The conclusion of the essay will try to bring in to focus the leadership style that is most favorable to change.George Orwells Anim al Farm was published in 1945 during the time of The Second World War. The book is said to be a critic of Stalins influence in Russia. The political satire gives insight into two types of leadership the democratic Snowball and the narcissist Napoleon. They were both leaders of the revolution that happened at the farm in the beginning of the story. Napoleon is seen as the sooner one who spoke rarely and only when absolutely required. Snowball on the other hand was a smoothy and was able to capture the attention of the crowd with his words. He was full of new ideas to purify the way of life in the farm. Snowball and Napoleon sleep together out with Seven Commandments for their Animal Farm once the humans are run out. The most important of these were all animals are equal (Orwell, 1945).Snowball was devoted to the commandments and further the animals to follow it to the dot. He tries methods to improve the way the animals lived by starting various clubs and trying to teach the an imals to read and write. Napoleon on the other hand unspoilt adopts a few pups and teaches them on private. No one in the farm go throughs what he is up to. A very important factor in their leadership of the farm was that they never agreed with each other. Whenever, Snowball came out with his elaborate schemes to improve farm life Napoleon stood against it. However, most of the time Snowball was able to win oer the support of the animals with his charismatic personality and play with words. He was able to win them over with comforting talk and some amount of reasoning. He tried to get the animals involved in the decision making through a voting system and gum olibanum had a more participative approach to runway the show.Napoleon on the other hand preferred to dictate and civilize things. He was not good at getting the animals on his side with his talk. and so after running Snowball out of the farm with the blood hounds he had trained and by lying to the animals he establishes himself as the leader. He uses another pig cal conduct Squealer to speak on his behalf and mislead the animals into believing that everything Snowball did was harmful. Squealer was also used to tell great tales roughly Napoleon. Napoleons autocratic style of leadership, with lies and tales pencil lead the show, leaves the animals confused. However, they carry on with their work more ardently than ever. He is a narcissist who makes the animals work mainly for his own benefit.When a comparison is made betwixt the kinds of leadership the two pigs portrayed big differences shadow be easily noticed. Snowball came out with good ideas but always presented it to the root word for vote. He sells it to the group with his speeches. When one considers Blanchards leadership theory, Snowball will fall under the selling/consultative leadership style. He could also be called a transformational leader. According to burn a transformational leader is one who is able to raise the entire group, inc luding himself, into higher levels of morality, motivation and motives (Gill, 2006). That is exactly what Snowball did. He raised the motivational level of the farm animals with his inspiring speeches and led them to work and fight for liberty and the betterment of the farm in which he too actively participated. However, Snowball lacked muscle power. Napoleon with the measureness of his dogs and a string of lies were able to overthrow Snowball. He clearly portrayed an autocratic and narcissist style of leadership. He was corrupt and with false pretenses he constrained his decisions on the group. There was no voting or any suggestions secluden from the animals. They were led to believe that everything that was happening was for their own good and made to do pronged work with lesser pay. Everything he did finally ended up in benefiting him and his gang of pigs and not the other animals of the farm. Though dictatorial and ruthless, Napoleon can be described as a transactional leade r as well. Transactional leaders are considerably autocratic in their approach and do not believe in consulting with the staff to come to a decision. They define tasks and job profiles and reward workers on a contingent level. As such they are generally able to get compliance out of the staff but never commitment to the cause. Such leaders are able to bring about stability, average as Napoleon did, but cannot instigate the change that the organization actually requires (Daft, 2010).Which of the above mentioned leadership style is the key to bringing about change in the organization? more or less management studyers are of the opinion that original change in an organization is brought about by a transformational leader. This is the reason organizations actually employ people who are known for their transformational capabilities in leadership roles when it comes into a crisis and requires a total change to happen. Locke says that leaders are in one way or the other transactional in nature (Locke, 1999). This many not be always right. There are many leaders who are unable to achieve even the transactional level of leadership. The real difference as stated by Bass (2008) is that the transformational leader does a lot more he ensures that the employees feel the need to work not just for the short term benefits of the company, but also towards the long term goals that could change the very face of the organization. The leader is thus able to lead them towards higher levels of victory not only for the organization but also for themselves (Orwells Snowball). But Basss view tends to state that transformational leaders are always successful. Clegg et al (2002) says that this is not the incident always. They quote a research in their book which states that context also plays a big role in success (Clegg et al, 2002). This is rather true, yet it can be said that transformational leaders run the extra mile to bring the context in as well.A transactional leaders im portance in the companys success cannot be undermined. He is ideal for maintaining the status quo and leading the company in its present state. Basss point that a transactional leader works with a focus on his self interest (Orwells Napoleon) and tries to make people work with contingent rewards than unconditional rewards is correct (Bass and Bass, 2008). He is more authoritarian in nature. This can be seen in the example of American Axles leader Dick Dauch. He was an authoritarian leader who bordered on narcissism. He was more interested in securing his and his familys future. Though successful, his leadership focused on mainly one area of business and hence when there was a shift in the market condition the company was quite unprepared (Fortune, 2008). There are other examples of leaders who are leading successful enterprises, but not always in the paths of glory. United Parcel benefit has a leadership pattern that is transactional in nature. The leaders at UPS aim at maintaining status quo and prefer for things to work they want. They employ an authoritative style to direct and get work done by the workers (Pride et al, 2010). Jim Donald, the former CEO of Starbucks, was not able to create any ripples. He tried to maintain status quo. His attempts to improve the companys fortunes failed and he was sacked by the company. Howard Shultz, the companys original transformational leader, stepped in and took reins to turn back the fortunes of the company (Fortune, 2011).An autocratic leader is quite similar to a transactional leader as yet autocracy does bring in short term changes. Even though their style is demanding, bordering on dictatorship, and is known to cause resentment among the workers, it cannot be said that they lead failing enterprises. For example, Bobby Knight, the basketball coach of Texas Tech is known to be harsh and demanding to the team members and this includes allegations of choking a player (Harvard Business Review, 2008). He still leads a winning team. However their ability to manage change and adversity is questionable. For example, Stan ONeal, the former CEO of Merrill Lynch, always had an autocratic approach to managing the show. He was quite ruthless and eliminated executives who were a threat to him. However, his style was able to withstand only the good times. The moment there was a problem in the company he did not know what to do and how to bring about a turn around. He was later pushed out of his position by a hostile vote by the notice of directors (Fortune 2010). The problem with such leadership is that it is not sympathetic towards change and for an organization to move transports change is a very critical factor. This is where a transformational leader comes in. According to Bass and Riggo (2006), their main aim is company greatness as against their own and for this they are ready to take risks (Bass and Riggio, 2006).The following are the points gathered from various sources as what transformational leaders do to bring about change in the organizationTalk to the people and inspire them to work towards change and a bodied vision (Lussier and Achua, 2010).Make the employees question the current status of the organization and ask themselves what they can do to improve it.Encourage innovation and distinctive thinking.Give special(prenominal) attention to the performance at the individual, group and corporate level. A careful integration of all three is required for bringing about transformation.Come forward and take the reins in a crisis with the intention of saving the organization and not for the self achievement.Ensure that the change is instilled into the core of the organization so as to last.establish on these things he does to achieve change in the organization the important variables associated with such a leader can be charted out. They arePositive check Transformational leaders are positive influences on the group they are leading. Bass and Riggo (2006) in their book Transformation Leadership refers to this as idealized influence (Bass and Riggio, 2006). It means that the leader inspires the people in the organization to copy him in their work habits and emotions. He becomes their role model and they follow him in making the organization great.motivational Influence Transformational leaders motivate the people to achieve greatness at the individual level as well as the corporate level. They motivate them to take risks and work ardently towards change in the organization.Intellectual Influence It is very essential to be intellectually stimulated to bring about innovative ideas and thus change. Beerel (2009) is right in stating that transformational leader intellectually stimulates the people in the organization by questioning the status quo and by looking at problems from different angles to come up with different solutions that the obvious (Beerel, 2009).Thoughtful Influence A leader who brings about change in the organization is generally co nsiderate towards the feeling, capabilities and capacities of others. The people in an organization led by a transformational leader feel that they are cared for and considered as separate entities than a collective means to achieve a goal. This in turn influences them to worker harder towards change.A few good examples of transformational leaders would clarify further the claims of many writers of how they affect change in a organization. Steve Rizley of Cox Communications, Arizona, took over the company when it was running losses for more than three years. He was pivotal in transforming the company into one of profit and senesceth. By encouraging the people to grow professionally as well as emotionally and intellectually, Rizley was able to convert the $700 million company into $1.3 billion in a little over two years since taking over (Bloomberg Businessweek, 2010). Yet another example is Proctor Gambles CEO, A. G. Lafley. Though he met with failure in the beginning he trudged o n and led P G in to one of the most successful enterprises today (Harvard Business Review, 2011). Jack Welch reigned as CEO of General Motors (GM) for almost twenty years. During his elevate he set in the path to success and glory. Welch set a new corporate paradigm for GE that not only assured its success but that became a model for the world over. He is known to spend hours with his managers, cajoling them, coaching them and questioning them so that they think bigger and more differently (Business Week, 1998).It is quite obvious that transformational leaders are ideal for bringing about change in the organization. They are able to bring out the best in the employees and come down light in to new and improved ways to conduct business. They are able to ensure long term commitment to the betterment of the organization from others leading the way to greatness. All transformational leaders are transactional. But the same cannot be said about transactional leaders. Their lack of abil ity to adapt or change is a big hurdle in achieving greatness for the organization they work for. The company itself may be flourishing but at a status quo position with no real innovation happening. Autocracy and narcissism does result in change but these are short lived and there is no long lasting change happening in the organization other than what may be beneficial to the leader himself. Napoleon of Animal Farm was able to bring about small changes in the farm, however, in the end the benefits of these changes were only to him and to his fellow pigs. The other animals in the farm were more or less the same as earlier if not worse. This is quite so in the real world as well. Snowball was a visionary and more in line of transformation. However, he did not have the muscle power to bring in the transformation required. A transformational leader is able to face all kinds of adversities and lead the company to a path of glory. It is he who revolutionizes the people and the organizat ion.ResourcesBass Bernard M and Riggio Ronald E. (2006), Transformational Leadership, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.Bass Bernard M with Ruth Bass (2008), The Bass Handbook of Leadership, Free Press.Beerel Annabel (2009), Leadership and Change Management, Sage Publications Ltd.Byrne prank A. (1998), How Jack Welch Runs GE, Business Week, June 1998, Available at Clegg Stewart, hardy Cynthia and Nord Walter R. (2002), Handbook of Organizational Studies, Sage Publications Ltd.Daft Richard (2010), Management, South Western Cengage LearningDillon Karen (2011), I think of my failure as a gift, Harvard Business Review, April 2011, Available at http//hbr.org/2011/04/i-think-of-my-failures-as-a-gift/esFarrell Greg (2010), Crash of the Titans The Rise and Fall of Stan ONeal, Fortune, November 4th 2010, Available at http//finance.fortune.cnn.com/2010/11/04/crash-of-the-titans-the-fall-of-merrill-lynch/ fisher cat Anne (2011), How Starbucks Got its Groove Back, Fortune, March 24th 2011, Avai lable at http//management.fortune.cnn.com/2011/03/24/how-starbucks-got-its-groove-back/Gill Roger (2006), Theory and Practice of Leadership, Sage Publications Ltd.Locke Edwin A. (1999), The Essence of Leadership The Four Keys to Leading Successfully, Lexington Books.Lussier Robert N. and Achua Christopher H. (2010), Leadership Theory, Application and Skill Development, South Western Cengage Learning.Orwell George (1945), Animal Farm A Fairy Story, Penguin Books.Pride William M, Hughes Robert J., Kapoor Jack R. (2010), Business, South Western Cengage Learning.Snook Scott A (2008), Love and fright and the Modern Boss, Harvard Business Review, January 2008, Available at http//hbr.org/2008/01/love-and-fear-and-the-modern-boss/ar/1Stevens Cleave Dr. (2010), What Employees Need from Leaders, as posted on Harvard Business Review on sixth May, 2010, Bloomberg Businessweek, 7th May, 2010, available at http//www.businessweek.com/managing/content/may2010/ca2010057_172171.htmTaylor Alex (20 08), Narcissism, Nepotism and Greed at American Axle, Fortune, July 2nd 2008, Available at http//money.cnn.com/2008/07/02/news/companies/taylor_americanaxle.fortune/index.htm

Perseverative errors during piagets a not b task

Perseverative errors during piagets a non b lineJean Piaget was the commencement to note childs younger than 8 months engaging in perseverative grasp during the A-not-B task (Bornstein and Lamb, 1999). In this task, an experimenter hides a toy under stripe A, within reach of the infant. The infant then expectes for the toy under thump A. This sequence of evets is repeated several times. Finally, in the experimental trial, the experimenter hides the toy under box B. After a hapless delay, the infant is allowed to reach for the box with the toy. Although the infant has seen the experimenter hide the toy under box B, and box B is within reach, the infant forget continue to search for the toy under box A.In Piagets theory of cognitive development, stage IV is critical. During stage IV of development, the infant appears to harbour some sense of physical prey permanence, since she does initially search for the hidden toy. The object concept, however, has a limitation to the child, the object is bound to its muddle (Gratch and Landers, 1971). Piaget asserted that this error (stage IV error, perseverative error, or A-not-B error) reveals an fractional abstract of object permanence. Recent researchers, however, found that the perseverative error can indicate deficits in separate cognitive abilities, as well (Marcovitch and Zelazo, 1999). In this paper, I will debate the full range of interpretations that can be derived from various results of Piagets A-not-B task, many of which have little, if anything, to do with object permanence. I will end with a study purpose to examine a newer version of the A-not-B task.THE PROBLEM OF OBJECT PERMANENCEIn his work on the sensorimotor development of infants, Piaget asserted that infants at ages 8-10 months show a perseverative error during search tasks due to incomplete object permanence, and that the error indicates a failure to assimilate the new hiding range into the infants object concept (Marcovitch and Z elazo, 1999). When other researchers examined Piagets hypothesis, their studies yielded mixed results. Wellman, Cross and Bartsch (1986) conducted a meta-analysis on all studies conducted on the perseverative error before 1986 and found that infants ages 8-10 months show significant perseve ration, reaching for location A overmuch more(prenominal) often than they reached for location B. Length of delay, childs age, and number of locations all had significant effects, while the number of trials reinforcing location A was unrelated to infants performance (Wellman, Cross and Bartsch, 1986).Among the studies examined in the meta-analysis, Gratch, Appel, Evans, LeCompte and Wright (1974) offered some opposition to Piagets hypothesis. After testing 9-month-old infants with the A-not-B task at delay intervals of 0, 1, 3, and 7 seconds, the researchers found that infants showed the perseverative error in all interval designates except the 0-second find out (i.e. no delay), with children just as likely to show the error at 1, 3, and 7 seconds of delay. These results contradict Piagets hypothesis of failure to assimilate the new hiding coiffe had this been the case, the infants should have shown the perseverative error level(p) with no delay before search (Gratch et al., 1974). The researchers suggest that after the infants gaze is drawn to B, and without a delay to search, the infant is point to the correct location (B) by virtue of already seeing in that direction. With any amount of delay, however, infants revert back to their original scheme of the toy quick at location A (Gratch et al., 1974). Even incorporating the results, this theory is compatible with Piagets hypothesis of incomplete object permanence and lack of assimilation of the new hiding place into the infants schema.Harris (1973) initially argued that the 10-month-old infants in his study presented the perseverative error due to proactive interference, evident by errors that increased when leng th of delay is increased. In a follow-up study, Harris (1974) discounts his preliminary ideas, asserting that a memory problem is not the likely culprit behind the perseverative error. In this study, Harris notes that 1-year-old infants, well beyond Piagets stage IV of sensorimotor development, lift twain locations A and B when an object moves that is, the infants do not treat object locations as mutually exclusive. In the A-not-B task, infants search behind both occluders to stupefy the object (Harris, 1974). If infants are searching both locations, it is unlikely that proactive interference is the reason behind the perseverative error (Harris, 1974).By 1975, researchers had still not found a satisfying cause of the perseverative error. Butterworth (1977), in an attempt to test Piagets hypothesis of incomplete object permanence, found that hiding the object is not a necessary condition for the perseverative error. In testing infants, Butterworth found that infants would sometim es look away from B before searching, usually indicating that proactive interference was a possibility however, infants showed the perseverative error even while continuously looking at B, or continuously tracking the object (Butterworth, 1977). As a post-hoc theory, Butterworth suggests that the problem may not be that of incomplete object permanence, but that infants during stage IV simply have not acquired the skill to identify and retrieve objects in a coordinated manner.THE SPATIAL reparation HYPOTHESISButterworth (1975) examined the perseverative error from a different point of view does the location of the object change the rate of error? Under various conditions, errors were, indeed, found to be a conk of the objects location. Results from this study show that infants made the error when the object was go away from the midline (Butterworth, 1975). Butterworth hypothesizes that errors were produced due to prior experience of the object at the midline (A), which made it dif ficult to assimilate the object at a location away from the midline (B). In this experiment, it is especially clear that infants are not simply repeating previously successful solutions that is, they make errors after a change in the relationship amidst locations, without prompting from the experimenter (Butterworth, 1975).In a corresponding study, Bremner and Bryant (1977) set out to differentiate between Piagets egocentric response perseveration hypothesis, and, as an alternate hypothesis, perseveration to a certain location in space. in that location is a clear distinction between the hypotheses, by chance best characterized by relative and absolute location. For example, if a child reaches for an object to her left, but changes the way she reaches if she is moved to the opposite side, then she is perseverating to a certain location in space. If the child continues to reach to her left even if she is moved to the opposite side, then she is showing egocentric response perseve ration. Both hypotheses predict different results and different reasons for the perseveration error. Interestingly, Bremner and Bryant (1977) were able to confirm Piagets hypothesis, finding that infants were repeating past successful actions, even when they were re-located and facing a new direction. Perseveration does seem to be of responses, not places. To explain why infants persist in their responses in spite of location changes, the researchers hypothesize that stage IV infants, unlikely to be crawling yet, may ignore visual information when an object needs to be relocated. After initially finding an object (at location A), the infant, in most cases, simply needs to repeat the motion to find the object again (Bremner and Bryant, 1977).In another study, Schuberth, Werner and Lipsitt (1978) created a condition in which fractional of the infants found a new toy at location B rather than the same(p) toy they saw at location A. These infants were less likely to show the perseverat ive error than their same-toy counter-group, theoretically because they mapped the location as part of the toys scheme, consistent with Piagets object concept hypothesis. However, the researchers found that although most infants in the toy-change condition showed less perseveration, third gear of them continued to err and search at location A. It is possible that these infants failed to identify the new toy as different from the old toy, but other than this speculation, the researchers have no explanation for the contrasting behaviour. Their results support Piagets hypothesis over the spatial localization hypothesis it appears that infants during stage IV do not differentiate between concept of object and concept of place (Schuberth et al., 1978).MEANS-ENDS ABILITIESAfter researchers failed to come up with tested alternative explanations for the stage IV error, they began to test infants object permanence itself, perhaps to reaffirm Piagets original hypothesis. In an infamous study by Baillargeon, Spelke and Wasserman (1985), five-month-old infants were habituated to a clear-screened drawbridge, moving from an upright position to a flat position. Infants were then exposed to a possible event and an impossible event in the possible event, the screen stops when it reaches an occluding box in the impossible event, the screen goes straight by dint of the box. The results showed that infants looked importantly longer at the impossible event, indicating that the infants expected the screen to stop when it hit the box, and were surprised when it did not. This experiment served two purposes (1) it disproves Piagets original birdcalls, showing that five-month-old infants appear to have a schema of object permanence and, (2) as object permanence is an inseparable aspect of how objects behave in time and space (Baillargeon et al., 1985, p. 206), the results raise even more questions about the perseverative error. If five-month-old infants understand the permanence of objects, their ability to exist when occluded, and that objects move on undeviating paths, why do 8- to 11-month-old infants commit the perseverative error during the A-not-B task?Baillargeon, Graber, Devos and Black (1990) claim that infants do poorly on the A-not-B task because it requires them to produce means-ends sequences. Their general hypothesis is that these younger infants have trouble planning such sequences due to limited problem-solving ability. The researchers suppose that the infants representations of the initial and destruction states are unlikely to be the problem. Instead, it is likely that the infants are unable to reason about the actions required to transform the initial state to the goal state (Baillargeon et al., 1990). In this study, the researchers showed that infants do understand whether certain actions are sufficient to retrieve the object consequently, the researchers hypothesize that infants are unable to select and sequence these actions adequately, even when they understand the actions. It seems, then, that it is a problem with planning.Matthews, Ellis and Nelson (1996) partially agree with Baillargeon et al.s (1990) hypothesis. After examining infants engage in a means-ends task several times during the longitudinal study, the researchers found the ratio of means-ends errors to total means-ends trials within a session to be non-significant. Means-ends errors dropped for infants across testing sessions, but no group going aways between ages were found. Despite these results, infants continued to perseverate during the A-not-B task, lead story the researchers to question what might be behind the perseverative error. They concede that despite the results of the means-ends portion of the study, the performance during the A-not-B tasks may, indeed, be due to some limitation of means-ends problem-solving ability. However, Matthews et al. (1996) also note that the function that mediates performance on the A-not-B task may be memo ry-related rather than one of perseveration.Similarly, Munakata, McClelland and Johnson (1997) found that 7-month-old infants who were trained on means-ends behaviours still showed different behaviours in tasks that required the same means-ends abilities. For instance, after being trained, infants completed more toy retrievals when the toy was hidden behind a transparent occluder than when the toy was hidden behind an opaque occluder. In terms of means-ends abilities, both the transparent and opaque conditions required the same actions and the same effort. As the infants appeared to have more difficulty in the opaque condition, means-ends deficits were likely not the culprit. In a latter experiment, Munakata et al. (1997) found similar results, with infants showing greater toy retrieval in the transparent occluder condition. The researchers concluded that their difficulties with the opaque occluder could not be attributed to means-ends abilities alone. Essentially, deficits in means -ends abilities seem to not cause problems when the goal object is not hidden.PERSPECTIVES FROM NEUROPSYCHOLOGYNeuropsychology views the Piagetian A-not-B task as testing the immaturity of the anterior lobe. At stage IV of sensorimotor development, the frontal lobe, still underdeveloped, is unable to support cognitive skills such as working memory, inhibition, and attention. Bell and Adams (1999) examined 8-month-old infants and their performance on both the looking and the reaching versions of the A-not-B task. From a neuropsychological perspective, the aforementioned cognitive skills are utilize to search in both looking and reaching tasks. If both versions test the same skills, it is possible that the reaching task is simply more motorically complicated for infants to complete properly. Indeed, Bell and Adams (1999) showed, in a within-subjects design, that in that respect is no difference in performance by infants in either the looking or the reaching version of the A-not-B t ask.Clearfield, Diedrich, Smith and Thelen (2006) discuss successfully completing the A-not-B task as requiring a combination of two sets of cognitive processes fast processes tied to the present, and slower processes tied to the past. Very young infants are often able to complete the task without error Clearfield et al. (2006) attribute this to the use of the fast processes alone. These processes decay quickly, and the researchers argue that the perseverative error is how infants learn how to balance the fast and the slow processes, making it an important developmental milestone. In fact, the results of their experiments show that the infant must achieve some level of stability before perseveration occurs (Clearfield et al., 2006). With eight-month-old infants smooth reaches and five-month-old infants poorly-controlled reaches, the eight-month-olds are more likely to form steady motor memories, possibly leading to perseveration at location A. These motor memories, formed during st age IV, are also only likely to be used during stage IV (Clearfield et al., 2006).Cuevas and Bell (2010) presented results consistent with the neuropsychological view, asserting that the cognitive skills required for looking and for reaching are very similar, and likely determined, in part, by the development of the prefrontal cortex. Infants initially appear to exhibit better performance on the looking version of the A-not-B task later in age, they exhibit like performance on both looking and reaching versions. The researchers assert that this difference is due to differences in brain circuitry infants show looking responses very early, while reaching responses are not consistently shown until 3-4 months, which still remain poorly-controlled until 8-9 months. Additionally, reaching creates more demands on cognition, requiring memory of the hidden location, planning of a means-ends action sequence, and a reaching response (Cuevas and Bell, 2010, p. 1369). It is possible that infant s exhibit the perseverative error due to cognitive overload caused by reaching.FUTURE DIRECTIONS STUDY PROPOSALAn interesting way to look at infant cognition during the A-not-B task is to use a gaze-tracking procedure. Once the eight-month-old infant is sitting on her parents lap, the researcher will begin the training trials, during which he will hide a toy under an opaque box (A), and then allow the infant to search for the toy. At this point, the infants gaze should remain on the researcher, the toy, and box A. During the test trials, the researcher will hide the toy under another opaque box (B), and, again, allow the infant to search for it. Before reaching (and presumably reaching for box A), where does the infant look? Does she look at box A immediately, or does her gaze linger on box B? Does she look at the researcher for clues, or does her gaze move back and forth between boxes? As the aforementioned research says that she is likely to perseverate at box A at eight months, when looking measures are unlikely to be used, it would be interesting to see if the infant has a more immediate response to the task before engaging in the reaching behaviour. Because looking develops before reaching, I predict that infants will not engage in perseverative behaviour through eye gaze, even if they ultimately reach for box A that is, they will look at box B, but reach for box A.CONCLUSIONCurrently, there are few true answers to the problem of the perseverative error. Although it is a robust and well-researched area of developmental psychology, researchers are still unsure why infants in stage IV of sensorimotor development are unable to reach for the correct location during the A-not-B task. Future directions, as mentioned above, involve finding another way to test infants object concepts in order to circumvent the perseverative error.

The Magic Circle :: essays research papers

The Magic CircleThe Magic Circle, by Donna Jo Napoli dealt with three main characters. In the story a cleaning woman named The Ugly One possesses the power to heal. The woman has a beautiful daughter named Asa. The Ugly one is a sorcerer who likewise helps sick people who argon possessed by demons. The Ugly one becomes a witch after biting the finger off a misshapen baby child and desi anticipate an acute golden ring.The main character is The Ugly Sorcerer who is a hunchback. At first she helps deliver children at birth and consequently she becomes a sorcerer when her populate persuades her to learn the ways of a healer. She uses an amethyst stone that is holy so that she can draw a circle know as a thaumaturgy circle. The circle keeps her safe while summoning demons that try to turn her into a witch. A man asked her to heal his child with an spare finger, but instead of apply her powers she simply bites it off and then she foolishly steps out of the magic circle to grasp the once desired ring and is regrettably she is morose into a witch. A boy named instrument is one of her patients. The Ugly one cures him and they become friends. Peter teaches her all he knows about the devils. Peter is a normal boylike child who keeps his faith in The Ugly one till the end. Peter turns into a strong young man who is truly knowledgeable about material body and demons due to his studies in books.Bala was the neighbor who convinced The Ugly One to heal people. The Ugly One was not sure if the Bala was well behaved or evil because of her name. The letter in Balas name were so similar to the Devils names. Bala treated The Ugly one very cruelly and had no respect for her because she was a hunchback. When The Ugly One turned into a witch, Bala was very quick to turn against her and sided with the crowd.The Magic Circle essays research papers The Magic CircleThe Magic Circle, by Donna Jo Napoli dealt with three main characters. In the story a woman named The Ugly O ne possesses the power to heal. The woman has a beautiful daughter named Asa. The Ugly one is a sorcerer who also helps sick people who are possessed by demons. The Ugly one becomes a witch after biting the finger off a deformed baby child and desiring an exquisite golden ring.The main character is The Ugly Sorcerer who is a hunchback. At first she helps deliver children at birth and then she becomes a sorcerer when her neighbor persuades her to learn the ways of a healer. She uses an amethyst stone that is holy so that she can draw a circle known as a magic circle. The circle keeps her safe while summoning demons that try to turn her into a witch. A man asked her to heal his child with an extra finger, but instead of using her powers she simply bites it off and then she foolishly steps out of the magic circle to grasp the once desired ring and is regrettably she is turned into a witch. A boy named Peter is one of her patients. The Ugly one cures him and they become friends. Peter t eaches her all he knows about the devils. Peter is a normal young child who keeps his faith in The Ugly one till the end. Peter turns into a strong young man who is very knowledgeable about anatomy and demons due to his studies in books.Bala was the neighbor who convinced The Ugly One to heal people. The Ugly One was not sure if the Bala was good or evil because of her name. The letters in Balas name were so similar to the Devils names. Bala treated The Ugly one very cruelly and had no respect for her because she was a hunchback. When The Ugly One turned into a witch, Bala was very quick to turn against her and sided with the crowd.

Marlows Transformation in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness Essay

Marlows Transformation in Joseph Conrads Heart of DarknessAfter returning from a voyage in the Congo of Africa, Joseph Conrad said Before the Congo I was a mere animal, and implied that only a select few of the rest of society feel locomote above the animal state. Conrad had a bout with malaria, and while recovering went through radical changes in thinking. He began to despise his fellow Belgians, and for a time he was furious with them for their very existence. Leonard Deans collection of Conrads letters show the writers scorn of regular society after his journey Everything is repellent to me here. Men and things, but especially men...all have a gift for getting on my nerves. (103) Conrad eventually accepted himself as one of these people, and began to work on Heart of Darkness, a cathartic novel establish on his journal written in the Congo. He wrote about Marlow, who will take a journey into the Congo and into his own soul, in an attempt to controvert the evil he experienced in Africa. Conrad presents a situation that he and Marlow both know, and that the average listener cant comprehend. Conrad was appalled and shaken by what he maxim existence practiced in the Congo, and by his statement cements his belief that a man cannot truly understand, sympathize, or feel anything significant on the emotional take unless he has also experienced the dark and the diseased side of himself. Everything up to that point is only scratching the surface of human nature. A human being needs suffering and experience with depravity before he is able to appreciate and embrace what is good in himself. He is only an animal up until that point.Marlow goes to Africa on a quest, though he isnt aware of it. Jerome Thale compared Marl... .../DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v407/n6800/full/407025a0_fs.htmlEvans, Robert O., Conrads Underworld. Cambridge Purdue Research Foundation, 1956.Guerard, Albert J., The Journey Within, 1958. Cambridge Mass Harvard University Press. Hewitt, Douglas, recapitulation of Heart of Darkness. Cambridge Bowes & Bowes Publishers Ltd., 1952.Modern Fiction Studies, IX, No. 4 Winter 63-64. Cambridge Purdue Research FoundationReid, Stephen A., The Unspeakable Rites in Heart of Darkness, Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, What I Learned in the Gulag. Excerpted and decrease from The Gulag Archipelagohttp//www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/4942/gulag.htmlTelgen, Diane, Novels for Students. 2 vols. Detroit Gale Researcher, 1997.Thale, Jerome, Marlows Quest, 1955. Toronto University of Toronto Quarterly, XXIV July.